ABA: SHAPING

APPLIED BEHAVIOUR ANAYLYSIS: SHAPING

Shaping is a strategy used to develop certain target behaviour that an individual do not exhibit occasionally and encourage a behaviour to exist. Shaping is defined as the differential reinforcement of successive approximation of a target behaviour until the person exhibits the target behaviour (Miltenberger, 2008). Shaping is the process of steps being introduced in each level, starting from a starting behaviour that the subject exhibit sometimes, and reinforcing the behaviour, and stop reinforcing that behaviour, leading to extinction of a behaviour, and development of a new behaviour that leads on towards the target behaviour. The process is repeated until the individual exhibits the desired target behaviour. However, this strategy is also susceptible to some problems and produces undesirable results if it is not carried out precisely or if the target behaviour is not best suited to this method. To best describe the application and misapplication, two cases will be presented to show contrast between application and misapplication of shaping.

Application

We are presented with a scenario; imagine you live in a house with a backyard. The door to the backyard is in your family room. You let your dog Felix out into the backyard a few times a day. You decide you would like to teach Felix bump the back door with his nose before you let him outside. Currently, whenever Felix wants to go outside, he walks around the family room and often walks past the back door. In this scenario, shaping strategy is suitable to be carried out. The guideline to execute a shaping strategy requires us to, define the target behaviour, determine whether shaping is the most appropriate procedure, identifying the starting behaviour, choosing the shaping steps, choosing the reinforcer, differently reinforce each successive approximations, and moving through the shaping steps at a proper pace. Now, we determine that the target behaviour is for Felix to bump his nose on the back door before being allowed out into the backyard. One of the most important factors is determining the starting behaviour of Felix. In this scenario, Felix is said to walk around the family room and often walks past the back door. That can be determined as the starting behaviour of Felix prior to letting him out. Despite seeing Felix pacing about the family room and walking past the back door, we would like Felix to be specific about getting out into the yard, rather than just assuming that it wants to go out. Now that we have the important element of starting behaviour and target behaviour identified, we must now select a reinforcer to act as a reward each time a successive approximation is achieved by Felix. The use of a reinforcer is important as we want to encourage a desirable behaviour to increase in frequency. For this situation, the reinforcer could be a dog treat that Felix favours and likes. The reinforcer will be immediately applied when Felix behaves according to cue. The reinforcer of conditioned respond item must be administered a second interval of each respond. For example, if a clicker is used in this shaping process, a successive approximation followed by a click, and immediately fed with a treat. The conditioned response could also be in the form of verbal cue, such as “Felix, yard?” Depending on the wanted target behaviour, any conditioned response is open to the trainer. In this scenario, verbal cue would be the suitable natural reinforcer for little Felix. Now, I shall determine the steps for the successive behaviour to occur. Although, the steps may be altered through the shaping process, it does not necessarily have to be the exact step-by-step process. What matters most is that each successive approximation must be closed gap and the extinction of the previous behaviour must take place because my goal is to have Felix display the target behaviour, which is bumping its nose on the back door. The starting point for me should be, every time Felix walks about in the family room, I shall say “Felix, yard?” and give him a treat. The successive approximation would be Felix would be given a treat only when he approaches the back door. I would want the behaviour of walking about the room to be extinct and anyway other behaviour that follows the cue “Felix, yard?” would not be rewarded. Perhaps, now I would stand near the back door that leads to the yard. The process may take a while and continuously repeated till Felix comes straight to the back door every time “Felix, yard?” is called out. Treats are given immediately after a successful action is performed, right after natural reinforcer is spoken. Now that Felix knows to approach the back door, the goal of getting to its target behaviour is closer. The next successive approximation would be “Felix, yard?” on encourage bumping his nose to the door. This could be done by putting my hand with the treat at the door. This step is repeated several times till Felix is used to it. Occasionally, I put my hand on the door but no treat in it and immediately reward the behaviour after it bumped its nose on the door. The next successful approximation would be when hand gesture is removed and Felix is rewarded every time it bumps its nose on the door. The final successful approximation would be every bump on the door, the door is opened by me and Felix is rewarded. Throughout the whole process, the criteria for each successful approximation may change to suit Felix immediate behaviour as it may not be as straight forward and easy but, what is important is, that the target behaviour is achieved and behaviours that leads to each successful approximation be extinct. By the end, of the shaping process, Felix will now respond to the natural reinforcer, “Felix, yard?” by going straight to the door and bumps its nose on it.

Misapplication

We saw how effective shaping strategies can be successfully implemented in the previous scenario. However, shaping may also be maladaptive if it is implemented incorrectly to and may lead to negative feedback. Here’s a scenario to see how shaping can be misapplied:

Dr. Williams, a school psychologist, was working with an extremely socially withdrawn adolescent, Jenny. Dr. Williams decided to use shaping to help Jenny develop social skills. He identified the target behaviour as making eye contact, smiling, standing up straight, talking at a normal voice volume, and nodding and paraphrasing when the other person said something. Dr. Williams was going to reinforce successive approximations of this target behaviour in therapy sessions, in which he played the role of a classmate and engaged in conversation with Jenny. In each session, Dr. Williams and Jenny role-played four or five short conversations. Before each role-play session, Dr. Williams reminded Jenny which behaviours she should work on. As a reinforcer for exhibiting the correct behaviour in the role play sessions, Dr. Williams bought Jenny an ice cream cone in the school cafeteria once a week.

In this scenario, the shaping technique cannot be used successfully. Why? It is because under the shaping guidelines, is the starting behaviour. Jenny is naturally withdrawn and do not make any social gestures that suggest her effort to develop social skills. Shaping requires that the starting behaviour must already be occurring at least occasionally but if no particular target behaviour is exhibited at all, other strategies is required to generate such behaviour. In addition, Dr. William seeks too many target behaviours at one go and this will create too many criterion which would make it difficult for Jenny and confuses her in the process. The approximation successions may also have too long intervals in between the reinforcement which is the ice cream which is once a week. The long duration gap between reinforcer and successive approximation would cause the behaviour to extinct in that period. Another reason why shaping would be a problem is, whenever Dr. Williams reminded Jenny on behaviours that she needs to work on, it might create a negative reinforcement as shown in Skinner’s operant conditioning. A positive reinforcement would be getting ice cream and negative reinforcement would be acting out target behaviour to avoid social discomfort. Shaping strategy requires the person to willingly execute behaviours that leads to successful approximation and finally, to the target behaviour. In this particular scenario, strategies like prompting or chaining would be better suited.

In conclusion, shaping techniques can be beneficial and improve the lives of people. When used correctly, it will yield good benefits. Such as, in the case where Homer (1971) worked with Dennis, a 5 year old child with intellectual disability and had a spinal condition called spina bifida, in which the spinal cord is damaged before birth. Unable to walk, Dennis could only crawl. With two shaping procedures, Dennis learned how to use crutches successfully and made him independent and his quality of life was improved. We must also be wary that misapplication will create an undesired behaviour or even worse still, shaping problematic behaviours.

Humanistic Approach in Motivation

By KJ Lim and Aminath A. Manik

The humanistic theory has been one of the main themes in understanding motivational behaviour. In this essay, we will talk about some of the founding “fathers” of the humanistic theory and how their contributions has helped developed contemporary views, and impacted the understanding of motivation. The humanistic approach has fundamentally developed over the last century and the two profound individuals responsible are Abraham Harold Maslow and Carl Ransom Rogers.

CARL RANSOM ROGERS

Carl Rogers was born on January 8, 1902 in Oak Park, Illinois, Chicago. He was born to Walter A. Rogers and Julia M. Cushing. Roger’s father worked as a civil engineer and his mother was a housewife. As a child, Rogers was very intelligent and with an education background in a religiously strict and ethics first setting, he became an independent and a disciplined person. After obtaining his Ph.D. from the University of Columbia, he spent his years working in academia and held positions at Ohio State University. Thereon, Rogers has developed his theories and approach on therapies and contributions to the field of psychology.

ABRAHAM HAROLD MASLOW

Abraham Maslow was born on April 1, 1908 in Brooklyn, New York.  He was the eldest of seven children born to his parents and was classes “mentally unstable” by a psychologist. His parents who themselves were uneducated first generation Jewish immigrants from Russia, pushed him hard for academic success.  Not surprisingly, he became very lonely as a boy, and found his refuge in books.After getting married to Bertha (his first cousin against his parents’ wishes) he and Bertha moved to Wisconsin so that he could attend the University of Wisconsin. Where, he became interested in psychology, and his school work began to improve dramatically. He spent time there working with Harry Harlow, who is famous for his experiments with baby rhesus monkeys and attachment behaviour.

A year after graduation, he returned to New York to work with E. L. Thorndike at Columbia, where Maslow became interested in research on human sexuality. Maslow served as the chair of the psychology department at Brandeis from 1951 to 1969.  While there he met Kurt Goldstein, who had originated the idea of self-actualization. It was also here that he began his crusade for a humanistic psychology, something ultimately much more important to him than his own theorizing.

THEORY

Humanistic views of motivation focus on the learner as a whole person and everyone has the potential to make contribution to society and be a good and likeable person if their needs are fulfilled. It examines the relationships among physical, emotional, intellectual, and aesthetic needs.

Maslow’s hierarchy, beginning with survival and safety needs, progressing through belonging and esteem needs, and ending with intellectual and aesthetic needs, reflects the “whole person” that is central to humanistic views of motivation.

Carl Rogers also emphasized people’s attempts to become self-actualized and suggested that unconditional positive regard is essential in the development of it. 

Carl Rogers’s theory is developed in the premise that human beings are basically good and possess an innate tendency to grow and mature. Rogers (1951) suggested that organisms have one basic tendency, which is to “actualize, maintain and enhance the experience self.” Rogers also recognized that humans have needs and they have the tendency to coordinate their needs in order to develop the self. Rogers stated that humans’ self is constructed from their interaction with the world and although their tendency to actualize is innate, it is that through pain and suffering people find the route to self-actualization.

Rogers went further to describe and emphasized that the “force of life” which is the self-actualization tendency, the built-in motivation that is present in every life form to achieve its potential to their fullest extent. The most powerful motivation drive of a person is to become “fully functioning” which means that a person experiences optimal psychological adjustment, optimal psychological maturity, complete congruence, and complete openness to experience.

Rogers pointed out there are potential problems that could arise if an individual’s positive regards is centred on pleasing others. Movements towards socialization worth and away from innate worth is antithetical to self-actualization and people should listen to their inner voice to judge what is good for their well-being, a process which Rogers calls organismic valuation process.

Maslow’s theory states that individuals have certain needs that must be met with a hierarchical manner (from the lowest to highest). The lower the needs in the hierarchy, the more fundamental they are and the more a person will tend to abandon the higher needs in order to pay attention to sufficiently meeting the lower needs. For example, when we are ill, we care little for what others think about us and all we want is to get better.

Maslow believed that fulfilling the needs in the correct order would allow individuals to become self- actualised, fully able persons. So only after the basic physiological needs; such as food, shelter, warmth is met can individuals move on to the next stages; the need to feel secure, to be loved and accepted and so forth.

Figure 1. Maslow's hierarchy of needs. (EPD Photos.Courtesy Gale Group.)

Maslow developed his theory not by studying mentally ill patients, which is where most psychological knowledge had derived from up to that point, but by studying healthy, productive, creative individual’s lives and careers. He concluded that, there were common characteristics which were shared by successful individuals – including self-acceptance, openness and respect for other individuals.

Maslow described other needs that did not fit into his hierarchy. These included cognitive needs, such as curiosity and scientific interest, as well as aesthetic needs, which include the need for beauty and order. As Maslow studied self-actualizing individuals, he also discovered a range of needs that extend beyond self-actualization. He called these needs transcendence needs or B-values. They refer to needs to contribute to human welfare and to find higher meanings in life. Although transcendence needs are usually described as lying somewhere beyond the need for self-actualization, these needs are not included in most formulations of Maslow's needs hierarchy yet it he believed that it played a big role in every individual. Instinct often helps us make decisions which an individual may think is hard to make but Maslow believed that it is our inner voice telling us what we really think is the right decision to be made for that particular situation. It helps from leading to self-destruction.  We also have positive needs that may become neutral in the worst case scenario for an example a student sitting for an exam and not being sure if he/she will do well yet you still work hard on other papers with a positive attitude (i.e. you do not let yourself become sad about it become depressed and not concentrate on rest of the work), as human behaviour does respond to needs but we will be wrong to think or say that all our needs are only physiological in nature. So we can say that needs is what actually what motivates our action. As they say “a human’s heart can never be fulfilled”.

DISCUSSION

Like many other theories, some may find the humanistic approach to be valid while others see it for the numerous inherent flaws. This theory includes the focus on both the positive nature of humankind and the free will associated with change.  Unlike Freud's theory and the biological approach, which focus on determinism or our lack of power over us, Maslow and Roger see the individual as very powerful.

Another aspect of humanistic theory is the ease in which many of its aspects fit well with other approaches.  Many therapists have adopted a humanistic tinge in their work with clients such as humanistic Psychotherapy which was greatly influenced by Maslow and also Client Centred Psychotherapy which was by Rogers (Gladding, 2009). While they may argue humanistic theory does not go far enough, they see the benefit of the core components in helping people change.

Over the years humanistic theory has been greatly used in different professions.  If you take a health class, you are likely to discuss Maslow's hierarchy.  If you study economic or business, you will also focus on moving upward in our lives in order to be more aware of who we are and where we fit in with the world. It is the same with many other professions, including literature, criminology, and history, among others, as the basics of humanistic thought strike an undertone in all of what is considered human.

However, with the good always comes the bad, and this theory is no different.  Some critics say that humanistic thought appears to centre on its lack of concrete treatment approaches aimed at specific issues.  With the basic concept behind the theory being free will, it is difficult to both develop a treatment technique and study the effectiveness of this technique.

There are those who believe humanistic theory falls short in its ability to help those with more sever personality or mental health pathology.  While it may show positive benefits for a minor issue, using the approach of Roger's to treat schizophrenia would seem ludicrous.  

Finally, humanistic theory makes some generalizations about human nature that are not widely accepted as complete.  Are people basically good or are there some individuals who are not capable of this?  Can we adequately argue that everyone follows the same levels as Maslow explained, or are these levels, and even what they stand for, be determined by the individual?  Why do some people seem to make negative choices even when positive solutions are staring them in the face?  These questions plague humanistic thought and the difficulty in researching the theory does not provide any freedom. Yet there are a number of different ways in which the pursuits of your goals can be met and you may need to overcome obstacles such as fear or duty, before you can fully develop and become self-actualized.

CONCLUSION

Humanistic theory an important step in understanding how it plays a big role in motivation, it suggests that the achievement of happiness is frequently dependent upon achieving, or giving you the licence to investigate and pursue your own deepest interests and desires. Humanistic theory has been incorporated into many differing views on psychotherapy and human change. Humanistic undertone in treatment provides a nice foundation for change, it helps people evaluate their life and see what are the most important things they want in their life and as well as giving the right motivation to reach this goal. While it may not be sufficient, it may still be necessary for a significant personality change to occur.

REFERENCES

Figure 1: Encyclopaedia of Nursing & Allied Health, ©2002 Gale Cengage. All Rights Reserved

Gladding (2009). Counselling, 6^th Ed., Pearson

Maslow, A. H. (1970). Motivation and Personality, 2nd. Ed., New York, Harper & Row

Cherry, K. “Carl Rogers Biography (1902-1987). About.com guide. http://psychology.about.com/od/profilesofmajorthinkers/p/bio_rogers.htm

Rogers, C. (1951) Client-centred Therapy: Its current practice, implications and theory. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.